History of the English language

History of the English language, 158-171

In addition, to the increase in foreign borrowings, one must recognize that many words dropped out of the language. The alliterative revival of the fourteenth century produced many new poems in the alliterative metre, but many of the old words associated this metre failed to survive. Literary style was provided with words borrowed from French and latin, rather than through the retention of an archaic vocabulary found in the old alliterative composition. However, an important addition to the vocabulary was the ability to exploit functional shift, that process whereby one part of speech could be used as another. This possibility exist mainly for lexical words. With the fall of inflection it was possible to tell from its from alone wheter a word was a noun, adjective, verb or adverb. It was the word order that indicated the function of a word, and so it became possible to exploit this possibility by using words from one part of speech in a different function. It was particulary common to use nouns as verbs. In the fourteenth century such nouns as “chill, fellow, hammer, spire” accur for the first time as verbs.
The fourteenth century is the first in which differences in register begin to be significant in literary works. However, the interpretation of the different level which words have at this time is difficult. Few writers make explicit comments on register. Yet the import of so many words of French and Latin origin would necessarily create a difference between a high style which used the resources of this foreign vocabulary, and a low style which relied on more common words. This difference is still with us today. The evidence to confirm this development is lacking though the loss of a word like “lemman” may indicate that this process was not uncommon. In some cases the English and the French or Latin words would develop differences i9n meaning which were in part the result of a difference in register.
It was becoming more common for particular groups of writers to develop their vocabulary, and at the end of this period this can be traced particularly in the writings of the Wycliffites or Lollards, though one need not assume that is was a trait restricted to them. The use of a Latine vocabulary for such writings rather than using an anglo-saxon vocabulary would set them apart from normal writing, and the use of individual “terms” from the register was no doubt intended to creat stylistic echoes and connotation which the receptive reader should pick up. It was becoming much more possible in English to create different levels of language in writing, informal style and different levels of normal writing were now available to be exploited by the thoughtful writer. Naturally, this was not something that all writers could yet manage.
In word formation the changes which we noted in the last chapter continue. Prefixs continue to fall out of the language, though some survive and others, as we have noted, are borrowed from French.
French and Latinate suffixes become common as a result of the many borrowings from those language. These changes are particularly evident in literary works, especially poetry, where borrowing was encouraged to give the style of the work a higher tone. It is not possible to say how far this tendency percolated through to the spoken language, but it seems improbable that it was very significant at this stage.
The introduction of French words had created variation in the traditional Germanic stress pattern which preferred the stress on the first vowel, unless it was a prefix. In French stress was variable and often fell on the final. In English poem the metre indicates that this stress pattern was transferred into English at least for words of French origin.
The noticeable feature of the vocabulary is the large number of words of French origin, there are few words from Latin or Old Norse, though zephirus comes from Latin rather than French and roote probably has an Old Norse form.
Towards the end of the fourteenth century there were many indications that attitudes to English were changing and it was being recognized as the main language for the century. There was an explosion in literary composition. Although much of this was concentrated in the London area where Chaucer and Gower worked, there was alliterative poetry in the north-west. Of which the most famous work was “sir Gawain and the green knight, and Langland started his “piers plowman” near the malvem hills, though he later moved to London. This may be the result of the growing importance of London in cultural matters. There were a large of manuscripts of the works by Chaucer and Gower compared with those from other parts of the country, this is a matter to which we will return in the next chapter. In other spheres Trevisa noted that teaching in English in schools. Which he claimed had been introduced by John of Cornwall in the middle of the fourteenth century, was by the time he was writing in 1385 regular in all grammar schools in England. In 1362 the Statude of pleading confirmed that English should be the language of the law courts, and in that same year parliament was opened in English for the first time.
What could be achieved in this matter is illustrated by the numerous manuscripts which were copied by the Wycliffites or Lollards. They show development of standardized varieties in the fourteenth century in a manner that prepared the way for that variety which was to become the eventual basis of the new standard. Professor Samuel has studied this development in the greatest detail and he suggests that the Lollard standardized variety of English has the best claim toi be the first literary standard after the period of French and Latin domination. This standardized variety was not invented by the Lollards though they had most influence in spreading it. It was based on the spoken dialects of the Central Midlands, especially the counties of Northampton shire, Huntingdonshire and Bedfordshire, though it was also adopted in several surrounding counties such as Leicestershire, where St Mary’s abbey at Leicester was an important centre for its dissemination. It may be recognized through certain spelling such as sich ‘such’, mych’much’, ony’any’. It survived in some areas until well into the fifteenth century and it was used by Reginald Pecock and his copyists in the last quarter of the fifteenth century, even though Pecock, a welshman by birth, was bishop of Chichester. It is suggested by Samuel that this standardized variety may have been copied as far away as Devon, and that makes its use by Pecock less surprising. Its dissemination by the Lollards was accompanied by their own special vocabulary which has been noted earlier, though it may be that the link of this variety with heresy was one reason which led to its demise. This variety was labeled by Professor Samuels as type 1 and that is how it is referred to today.
Type 1 is distinguished from his type 2 and 3 which were other standardized varieties which overlap with it, but which did not have the same geographical distribution. Type 2 is found in a group of fourteenth century manuscript which are probably all from greater London area. Type 3 is also a London-based standard. It is particularly associated with the best manuscripts of Chaucer and the slightly later poet Hoccleve who worked as a scribe in the Chancery.
Although the amount of writing found in type 3 and its association with Chaucer with Chaucer and Hoccleve make it the variety most familiar to modern readers, there is nothing to suggest that it became a literary standard. The various manuscript of Chaucer and Gower exhibit considerable differences, and although Chaucer himself may have written in type 3, his influence was not apparently very deep. It was 4 which was to produce the standard language and that type is the Chancery standard that is closely associated with the flood of document issuing from the Chancery from about 1430 onward. A consideration of this type belongs to our next chapter, which deals with the establishment of the new standard English.

Introduction to linguistic

Name   : Dany Darma Putra

NIM    : 109014000157

Class    : II D

Task     : Introduction to linguistic

RINGKASAN CHAPTER 4

BAHASA DAN OTAK

Menurut kasus musibah yang terjadi pada seorang yang bernama Phineas P. Gage, musibah tersebut mengenai kening atau kepala bagian depanya, akan tetapi peristiwa tersebut tidak mempengaruhi kemampuan berbicaranya. Dapat kita simpulkan bahwa; kemampuan berbahasa terdapat pada otak, tetapi pastinya bukan terletak pada otak bagian depan.

BAGIAN BAGIAN OTAK

Sejak peristiwa yang terjadi pada phineas, banyak orang yang menyelidiki atau mempelajari dimana letak otak yang berfungsi sebagai pengendali bahasa tersebut.

1.      Baroca’s area.

Seorang ahli bedah dari Prancis namanya Paul baroca, menyebutkan bahwa; otak yang mengendalikan kemampuan berbahasa adalah pada otak sebelah kiri. Yaitu otak yang menghasilkan atau memerintahkan seseorang untuk menghasilkan suara.

2.      Wernicke’s area

Carl Wernicke adalah seorang dokter di Jerman. Dia memperkuat pendapat Paul Baroka yang menyatakan bahwa otak pengendali bahasa adalah disebelah kiri. Yaitu otak yang mengendalikan pendengaran dan pemahaman.

3.      Area pelengkap

Yang dimaksud dengan area pelengkap pada otak yang berfungsi dalam kegiatan komunikasi adalah; bagian otak yang sangat berdekatan dengan bagian otak yang berfungsi sebagai pergerakkan atau movement, contohnya; pergerakkan tangan atau kaki, dsb. Dapat disimpulkan bahwa; bagian otak yang berfungsi sebagai alat pergerakkan juga terlibat dalam kegiatan komunikasi.

4.      Cara pandang Pengelokasian

Kegiatan komunikasi melibatkan beberapa bagian otak. Pertama, Mendengar dan memahami oleh area Wernicke, kemudian dikirim ke area Broca untuk menghasilkan suara. Pengelokasian adalah; mengedintifikasikan dimana tepatnya bagian-bagian otak yang mempunyai fungsinya masing-masing dalam kegiatan berkomunikasi tersebut.

5.      Cara pandang lain

Dalam cara pandang lain ini kita harus menggunakan ‘metapora’ secara utama, karena kita tidak bisa mengakses ataupun memproses linguistik di dalam otak secara langsung, karena kita tidak mempunyai akses secara langsung. Jadi seseorang harus mempunyai usaha untuk memproses sesuatu komunikasi ataupun informasi didalam otaknya.

6.      Ujung Lidah dan ketergelinciran

yang dimaksud dengan “ujung lidah dan ketergelinciran” adalah; apabila seseorang salah atau tidak tepat fonologinya dalam mengucapkan sesuatu. Ini terjadi karena kekeliruan ataupun kesalahan otak dalam memproses ataupun memproduksi suatu bunyi dari kata tersebut.

7.      Penyakit Aphasia

Aphasia adalah suatu penyakit, dimana seseorang apabila mengalami ini, orang tersebut akan mengalami kesusahan dalam menggunakan dan memahami bahasa. Amphasia sering disebabkan oleh penyakit Stroke.

8.      Broca’s aphasia

Yang satu ini adalah sejenis penyakit dimana orang yang mengalaminya akan mengalami kekacauan dalam struktur kalimat. Bicaranya terlalu pelan sehingga memerlukan tenaga yang kuat untuk menghasilkan suara.

9.      Wernicke’s aphasia

Suatu penyakit dimana orang yang mengalaminya bisa berbicara sangat lancar, tetapi susah untuk dipahami. Mengalami kesusahan dalam memahami sesuatu lewat pendengaran.

10.  Dichotic listening

Otak sebelah kanan mengendalikan anggota tubuh sebelah kiri, sebaliknya, otak sebelah kiri mengendalikan bagian tubuh sebelah kanan. Jadi apabila seseorang mendengar suara dari telinga kanan, maka suara tersebut akan diproses langsung ke otak sebelah kiri, akan tetapi apabila suaranya masuk dari telinga kiri, maka suara tersebut akan singgah dulu ke otak kanan lalu dikirim ke otak bagian kiri.

11.  The critical period

Critical priod atau dalam bahasa indonesianya kurang lebih “masa masa genting” adalah dimana seseorang lebih mudah menerima dan mempelajari bahasa, karena pada masa ini otaknya berkembang sangat baik. Masa ini terdapat pada masa anak anak sampai dengan masa pubertas.

12.  Genie

Genie adalah seorang anak yang berusia 13 tahun di Los Angeles yang dikurung oleh ayahnya dalam ruangan tanpa ada suara apapun, ataupun media apapun kecuali komunikasi dengan ibunya yang member makan hanya beberapa menit saja.

Saat Genie diselamatkan, dia tidak bisa menggunakan bahasa / berbicara. Tetapi dalam waktu yang tidak lama dia bisa merespon perkataan orang lain. Saat diteliti ternyata Genie tidak mempunyai otak Kiri. Terus bagai mana dia untuk membangun kemampuan berbahasa? Ternyata dia menggunakan otak kananya, otak kananya yang berfungsi sebagai pengendali bahasa. Jadi dapat disimpulkan bahwa tidak dapat dipastikan secara spesifik atau mutlak fungsi masing-masing bagian otak manusia.

RINGKASAN CHAPTER 20

BAHASA, MASYARAKAT DAN BUDAYA

Bahasa dapat dipengaruhi oleh pergaulan atau lingkungan, sebagai contoh; orang yang tinggal dan hidup di suatu daerah bisa mempunyai cara berbicara yang berbeda. Hal ini dipengaruhi oleh lingkungan atau tingkat social pergaulanya. Untuk lebih rinci, akan dijelaskan sebagai berikut:

1.      Pendidikan, pekerjaan, dan tingkat sosial

Selain itu “dialect atau cara berbahasa” juga dipengaruhi oleh tingkat pendidikan, pekerjaan atau jabatan, dan tingkat kelas social. Contohnya; cara berbahasa supir angkot dengan cara berbicara bapak dosen mempunyai perbedaan. Cara berbahasa anak jalanan dengan cara berbahasa mahasiswa UIN akan berbeda.

2.      Umur dan jenis klamin

Umur dan jenis kelamin juga mempengaruhi/membedakan cara berbahasa. Contohnya seorang kakek dan seorang cucunya yang tinggal di lingkungan yang sama, dan tingkat social yang sama, pada dasarnya mereka mempunyai cara berbahasa masing-masing. Selain itu, jenis kelamin juga menentukan, kaum Hawa apabila berbicara akan lebih bergengsi atau bermartabat tinggi dari pada kaum Adam, sebagai contoh; kaum wanita berbicara lebih sopan dan halus dari pada kaum laki-laki.

3.      Latar belakang Suku.

Suku atau dalam bahasa inggrisnya disebut “Ethnic” juga membedakan cara berbahasa. Sebagai contoh masyarakat amerika yang berkulit hitam tidak sama cara berbahasanya dengan masyarakat orang inggris walaupun mereka sama sama menggunakan bahasa Ingris.

4.      Gaya berbahasa

Gaya berbahasa, atau dalam bahasa inggrisnya “idiolect” juga membedakan cara berbahasa seseorang. Contohnya; ada orang yang cara berbicaranya lebih halus atau lebih keras dari yang lain. Ini dipengaruhi oleh cara berbahasanya ataupun sifatnya masing-masing individu.

5.      Gaya dan tingkat nada (style and register)

Gaya dan nada seseorang dalam berbicara juga dipengaruhi oleh situasi dimana orang tersebut berada. Sebagai contoh; seseorang berbicara dalam wawancara kerja akan berbeda dengan caranya berbicara dengan temanya di rumah atau dipergaulan. Tidak hanya dalam berbicara, tetapi dalam komunikasi tertulis juga begitu, oleh karena itu disebut ada situasi formal dan situasi non formal.  

6.      Diglossia

Istilah ini digunakan untuk menggunakan bahasa secara tepat pada sasaran, yaitu tepat pada waktunya, kondisinya, tempatnya. Sebagai contoh bahasa yang kita gunakan dalam ceramah agama dan berbahasa dalam ceramah kepresidenan akan lebih bergengsi atau lebih formal dibandingkan dengan berbicara dengan teman dalam situasi bermain. Sebagai contoh di Indonesia, peresiden SBY akan berbeda cara bicaranya di acara siding pemerintahan dengan cara bicaranya di keluarganya.

7.      Bahasa dan budaya

Bahasa dan budaya mempunyai hubungan yang erat. Dimana bahasa merupakan identitas dari suatu budaya. Tidak dipungkiri lagi bahwasanya tiap tiap budaya mempunyai bahasanya masing masing. Bahkan bahasa merupakan cerminan bagi suatu budaya.

8.      Linguistic determinism

Setiap bahasa mempunyai “rasa” atau cara pandang masing masing. Apabila kita mempelajari suatu bahasa, maka kita akan ditentukan oleh bahasa tersebut.

9.      The Sapir-Wkorf hypothesis

Yang mempunyai nama asli Edward Sapir dan Benjamin Wrof adalah orang yang berargumen pada tahun sekitar 1930 bahwasanya bahasa India-Amerika membawa masyarakatnya memandang ataupun cara hidup masyarakat tersebut secara berbeda dari mereka yang berbahasa eropa.

10.  Language universal

Yang dimaksud dengan “bahasa universal” adalah; sifat sifat umum yang ada pada suatu bahasa yang dikenal luas ke daerah ataupun Negara lain.

Belajar & Pembelajaran

Dany Darma Putra

109014000157

Emosi

1.       Pengertian Emosi.

Emosi adalah perasaan intens yang ditujukan kepada seseorang atau sesuatu. Emosi adalah reaksi terhadap seseorang atau kejadian. Emosi dapat ditunjukkan ketika merasa senang mengenai sesuatu, marah kepada seseorang, ataupun takut terhadap sesuatu.[1]

Menurut Daniel Goleman(1995) seorang pakar kecerdasan emosional, memaknai emosi sebagai setiap kegiatan atau pergolakkan pikiran, perasaan, nafsu setiap keadaan mental yang hebat dan meluap luap. Lebih lanjut ia mengatakan bahwa emosi merujuk kepada suatu perasaan dan pikiran pikiran yang khas, dan suatu keadaan biologis dan prikologis, dan serangkaian kecendrungan untuk bertindak.

Sedangkan menurut Chaplin (1989) dalam dictionary of psychology, emosi adalah sebagai suatu keadaan yang terangsang dari organisme mencangkup perubahan perubahan yang disadari, yang mendalam sifatnya dari perubahan perilaku. Chaplin (1989) membedakan emosi dengan perasaan, perasaan (feeling) adalah pengalaman yang disadari yang diaktifkan baik oleh perangsang eksternal maupun oleh bermacam macam keadaan jasmaniah.[2]

2.       Macam Macam Emosi

Pembagian jenis emosi menurut ilmu psikologi ada bermacam-macam, tapi di sini kita bahas yang umum-umum saja yang sudah biasa di kenal masyarakat. Sudah kita ketahui bahwa Allah menciptakan segala sesuatu baik di langit dan bumi selalu berpasang-pasangan. Contohnya ada baik, ada buruk, ada benar ada salah, ada siang dan ada malam. Semua yang Allah ciptakan berpasang-pasangan. Begitu juga dalam masalah emosi Allah ciptakan berpasang-pasangan ada emosi positif ada emosi negative.[3] Oleh karena itu, emosi dapat dibagi sebagai berikut:

a.                   Senang dan susah

b.                  Cinta dan benci

Cinta adalah perasaan senang dan ingin disenangkan atau sama dengan perasaan memiliki dan ingin dimiliki. Perasaaan senang dan memiliki inilah yang disebut cinta . Contohnya cinta pada lawan jenis, merupakan perasaan ingin disenangkan oleh pasangan kita, dan pasangan kita adalah milik pribadi yang harus menyenangkan, pasangan yang tidak menyenangkan di benci, di musuhi dan dicemburui. Begitu pun kepada harta akan ada perasaan memiliki dan senang, karena dengan harta yang banyak, dia bisa mengambil manfaat.

c.                   Sedih dan gembira

Sedih adalah perasaan kehilangan atau perasaan tak memiliki apa-apa, sedangkan gembira adalah perasaan memiliki segalannya.

d.                  Berani dan Takut

Takut adalah sebuah perasaan. Perasaan khawatir, cemas dan sesuatu yang akan terjadi di masa depan . Takut muncul karena kita tak memiliki kemampuan, kamampuan untuk menghadapi resiko  dan masalah.

e.                  Marah dan Sayang

Marah adalah suatu emosi yang secara fisik mengakibatkan antara lain peningkatan denyutjantung, tekanan darah, serta tingkat adrenalin dan noradrenalin.[4] Marah timbul jika sesuatu tidak sesuai dengan harapan .Sayang timbul jika sesuatu sesuai dengan harapan.[5]

3.       Faktor-faktor yang Mempengaruhi Emosi:

Beberapa ahli psikology menyebutkan adanya beberapa factor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan kematangan emosi seseorang (Astuty. 2005) yaitu:

1.       Pola asuh orang tua

Pola asuh orang tua terhadap anaknya bervariasi, ada pola asuh yang dianggap yang terbaik oleh dirinya sendiri saja, sehingga ada yang bersifat otoriter, memanjakan anak, acuh tak acuh, tetapi ada juga dengan yang penuh cinta kasih. Perbedaan pola asuh dari orang tua seperti ini dapat berpengaruh terhadap perbedaan perkembangan emosi peserta didik.

2.       Pengalaman traumatic.

Kejadian kejadian traunatik masa lalu dapat mempengaruhi perkembangan emosi seseorang. Dampaknya jejak rasa takut dan sikap terlalu waspada yang ditimbulkan dapat berlangsung seumur hidup. Kejadian kejadian traumatis tersebut dapat bersumber dari lingkungan keluarga maupun dari luar lingkungan keluarga.

3.       Temperamen.

Temperamen dapat didefinisikan sebagai suasana hati yang mencirikan kehidupan emosional seseorang. Hingga tahap tertentu masing masing individu memiliki kisaran emosi sendiri sendiri. Temparamen merupakan bawaan sejak lahir, dan merupakan bagian dari genetic yang mempunyai kekuatan hebat dalam rentang kehidupan manusia.

4.       Jenis kelamin.

Perbedaan jenis kelamin memiliki pengaruh yang berkaitan dengan adanya perbedaan hormonal antara laki laki dan perempuan. Peran jenis maupun tuntutan social yang berpengaruh pula terhadap adanya perbedaan karakteristik emosi diantara keduanya.

5.       Usia

Perkembangan kematangan emosi seseorang sejalan dengan pertambahan usianya. Hal ini dikarenakan kematangan emosi dipengaruhi oleh tingkat pertumbuhan dan kematangan fisiologis seseorang. ketika usia semakin tua, kadar hormonal dalam tubuh turut berkurang, sehingga mengakibatkan penurunan pengaruhnya terhadap kondisi emosi. Namun demikian dalam hal ini tidak menuntut kemungkinan seseorang yang sudah tua, kondisi emosinya masih seperti orang muda yang cendrung meledak ledak. Hal tersebut dapat diakibatkan karena adanya kelainan kelainan didalam tubuhnya. Kelainan yang tersebut dapat terjadi akibat dari pengaruh makanan yang banyak merangsang terbentuknya kadar hormonal.

6.       Perubahan jasmani.

Perubahan jasmani ditunjukkan dengan adanya perubahan perubahan pada diri seseorang seiring dengan pertumbuhannya. Tidak semua peserta didik dapat menerima perubahan kondisi tubuhnya, lebih lebih perubahan tersebut menyangkut perubahan kulit yang menjadi kasar dan penuh jerawat. Hal hal seperti ini sering kali menimbulkan masalah dalam perkembangan emosinya.

7.       Interaksi dengan teman sebaya.

Peserta didik seringklali membangun interaksi sesama teman sebayanya. Fator yang sering menimbulkan masalah emosi adalah hubungan cinta dengan teman lawan jenis. Gejala ini sebenarnya sehat bagi peserta didik tetapi tidak jarang menimbulkan konflik atau gangguan emosi pada mereka jika tidak diikuti dengan bimbingan dari orang tua atau orang yang lebih dewasa.

8.       Interaksi dengan sekolah.

Sekolah merupakan tempat pendidikan yang sangat di idealkan oleh peserta didik. Para guru merupakan tokoh yang sangat penting dalam kehidupan mereka, karena selain tokoh intelektual, guru juga merupakan tokoh otoritas bagi bagi para peserta didiknya. Oleh karena itu tidak jarang anak anak lebih percaya, lebih patuh bahkan lebih takut pada guru dari pada kepada orang tuanya. Posisi guru disini sangat strategis apabila digunakan untuk pengembangan emosi anak melalui penyampaian materi materi yang positif.[6

Source:

1. http://wawan-junaidi.blogspot.com

2. http://st290012.sitekno.com

3. http://id.wikipedia.org

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[1] http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emosi

[2] http://wawan-junaidi.blogspot.com/2009/10/pengertian-emosi-definisi-emosi.html

[3] http://st290012.sitekno.com/article/16824/jenisjenis-emosi.html

[4] http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemarahan

[5] http://st290012.sitekno.com/article/16824/jenisjenis-emosi.html[6] http://wawanjunaidi.blogspot.com/2009/10/faktor-faktor-yang-mempengaruhi_26.html-

Writing

Name          : Dany Darma Putra

NIM            : 109014000157

Class           : IV D

What makes a paragraph effectively?

One paragraph will be best and effective if there are some features exist on it. The first is a topic, this feature must be available in a paragraph because it is a foundation what the writing about. Without a topic, the writer doesn’t have anything to be explained. The topic must also be interesting for the writer, so that the writer will be interested to write about the topic. The topic must also be controlled, so that the meaning of the writing not too wild and difficult to be understood. The second one of the effective paragraph is an introduction, a paragraph has an introduction exists on the first sentence. This feature is also important because this introduction tells the reader what the paragraph about. The next feature of the effective paragraph is a content. In this part writer can put and explain what he or she wants to share. The last one is a conclusion. This part includes all the content about. And this part can make the readers more understand what the paragraph means. Those all are some features of an effective paragraph. 

READING SQ3R

NAME: Dany Darma Putra                        NIM: 109014000157               CLASS: III D

Book Response Form

Book Title                  : WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO COMMITMENT?

Author                        : Edward R.Dayton

Publisher                    : Zondervan. USA

Date Published          : In 1984

Number of Page        : 234 pages

Chapter1        : What ever happened to commitment?

I think, this chapter describes about introduction of the commitment, connecting or related between commitment and religion.

Chapter2        : Our American World

Base on my mind, I think this chapter talks about problems between Christian religion and American people in America

Chapter3        : How Americans think

In my opinion, I think, this chapter describes about opinion of American people or how they think toward The Christian religion.

Chapter4        : I am me !

I think, this chapter describes about to make the Americans aware or realized about who really they are.

Chapter5        : American Relationship

 I think, This chapter talks about the way of Americans in relationship and it impacts toward sharing the Religion in the country.

Chapter6        : What’s the world like, America?

I think, this chapter explains about how Americans think toward the values of life, they have different thought with the Christ Religion concepts.

Chapter7        :  American and Christianity in the beginning

I think, this chapter talks about the history of Christian religion came in to the America in the beginning or at first time.

Chapter8        : The making of a civil religion

I think, this chapter talks about, how European people came and shared the Christian religion in America.  

Chapter9        :  A new world view

I think, this chapter talks about the new shape of American world after being changed or accompanied by Christian religion.

Chapter10      :  How do we respond?

I think, this chapter describes about responding of American people against the Christian religion.

Chapter11      :  Commitment to the community

I think, this chapter talks about persuading of Christianity so that American people to be the one, not separated, in order to they become stronger with hold Christian religion.

Chapter12      :  The cost of community

I think, this chapter explains that, Christian had a principle that community is better than separated, and it had the best value to be community.

Chapter13      :  Where to begin

In this chapter, I think, it talks about what should they do to begin to hold the Christian religion, and this is such as their few first step to a longest journey.

Chapter14      :  Living life

I think, this chapter talks about differences among fellowship communities in this world, they are to be different caused by different cultures and societies. This chapter also teaches Christians how to make the living to be better.

Chapter15      : What of tomorrow

I think, this chapter talks about the culminates of the Christian religion in the past and they hope the kingdom of the Christ will come back.

TABLE OF CONTENT:

Chapter1:       What ever happened to commitment?

A.    Progress report

B.     But something is wrong

C.     Meanwhile, back at the world

D.    What ever happened to commitment?

Chapter2:       Our American World

A.    It is not something we think about

B.     Americans are different

Chapter3:       How Americans think

A.    How Evangelicals think

B.     Facts are facts, are not they?

C.     Cause and effect

D.    Legalism or license

E.     Judge one thing by another

F.      The world is a big machine

G.    The great god technology

Chapter4:       I am me !

A.    Self-centeredness

B.     Everyone needs to be motivated

C.     Doing rather than being

D.    You can do it!

Chapter5:       American Relationship

A.    Getting involved with people

B.     Everyone is equal

C.     Confrontation

D.    Fair play

E.     American want to be liked

F.      Introspection and self-criticism

G.    Roles

Chapter6:       What’s the world like, America?

A.    Progress

B.      What about people?

C.     Change

D.    The denial of death

E.     Material comfort

F.      Avoidance

Chapter7:       American and Christianity in the beginning

A.    The historical accident

B.     The new idea – the individual

C.     Three view of church and state

D.    In the world but apart

E.     Christian calling

F.      Unlimited wealth

G.    Competition

H.    Freedom

Chapter8:       The making of a civil religion

A.    The great awakening

B.     The Enlightenment

C.     The seed of revolution

D.    The Constitution

E.     Institutionalizing the kingdom

F.      Yankee ingenuity and interchangeable parts

Chapter9:       A new world view

A.    The result of pluralism

B.     Cultural isolation

C.     Rewriting history

D.    The technological fix

E.     Cause and effect

F.      The last one hundred years

G.    But what of the present?

Chapter10:     How do we respond?

A.    Three levels of commitment

B.     Commitment to self

C.     To what local church am I committed?

D.    Turn it upside down

Chapter11:     Commitment to the community

A.    Where do we begin?

B.     The characteristics of Christians

C.     What does every local fellowship do?

D.    What is community?

Chapter12:     The cost of community

A.    Some obvious objections

B.     Some not-so-obvious objections

Chapter13:     Where to begin

A.    Begin with God’s word

B.     Begin with a group

C.     Explore gift together

Chapter14:     Living life

A.    Learning to trust

B.     Learning what is important

C.     Learning to know myself.

D.    Learning to fight materialism

E.     Learning to be accountable

F.      Learning to reach out

G.    Learning about marriage

H.    Learning to accommodate families

I.       Learning to move deeper into Christ  

Chapter15:     What of tomorrow

A.    How shall we live?

B.     Secular society examines itself

C.     Christians society examines itself

D.    The call to commitment

E.     Commitment is community.

Questions

Chapter 1       : What ever happened to commitment?

1.      Sub Title          : Progress report

Question          : what kind of the progress report?

Answer            : this report is kind of explanation of how the Christian religion be published in the country, and it was going well at the time.

2.      Sub Title          : but something is wrong

Question          : why is something wrong?

Answer            : because American people did not follow all of the Religion roles, they became greedier of wealth,

3.      Sub Title          : meanwhile, back at the world

Question          : what is back at the world?

Answer            : Back at the world is about American thinking, they think the rest of the world is the most important.

4.      Sub title           : what ever happened to commitment?

Question          : what ever happened to commitment?

Answer            : in this book, there are mentioned, the family had time to care, and the pastor had time to care, it’s kind of commitment to be responsible.

Chapter2        : Our American World

1.      Sub Title          : It is not something we think about.

Question          : What is something not think about?

Answer            : It is different between we see ourselves with others do, so we can find the truth about ourselves by looking from others.

2.      Sub Title          : Americans are different

Question          : Why are Americans different?

Answer            :  Americans are different because the forces at work in the world when the U.S. was founded were unlike those of any other period in history.

Chapter3        : How Americans think

1.      Sub Title          : How Evangelicals think

Question          : How the Evangelicals think?

Answer            : It’s same way as most middle-class Americans.

2.      Sub Title          : Facts are facts, are not they?

Question          : Facts are facts, are not they?

Answer            : Yes they are

3.      Sub Title          : Cause and effect

Question          : What are the Cause and the effect?

Answer            : Cause is the thing makes something occurs, and the effect is the result.

4.      Sub Title          : Legalism or license

Question          : What is the Legalism or license?

Answer            : Legalism and license are a response to American culture

5.      Sub Title          : Judge one thing by another

Question          : why does one thing judge other?

Answer            : Because one thing can’t judge itself by itself, it needs to be judged by other.

6.      Sub Title          : The world is a big machine

Question          : Why is the world called a big machine?

Answer            : Because, The world is rational, machinelike. Events can be explained. We can determine the reason certain things occurred. We assume the World is mechanistic and material. The sun will come up tomorrow. The law of gravity will still apply. We may not be able to control earthquakes today, but someday we will understand how they work. 

7.      Sub Title          : The great god technology

Question          : What is The great god technology?

Answer            : The great god technology is individual,

Chapter4        : I am me !

1.      Sub Title          : Self-centeredness

Question          : What is the Self-centeredness?

Answer            : Self centeredness is a bad behavior, the owners of this behavior are too confident of themselves, looking for information by our selves, not depend on other. This behavior can’t or be difficult to accept opinions from other.

2.      Sub Title          : Everyone needs to be motivated

Question          : Why does Everyone need to be motivated?

Answer            : Because the motivated is like a power for one self, in order to be success, so everyone need the motivation.

3.      Sub Title          : Doing rather than being

Question          : What does “Doing rather than being” means?

Answer            : We have a need to be active and energetic. We can’t just keep dreaming, but we must make the dreams come true.

4.      Sub Title          : You can do it!

Question          : What can I do?

Answer            : You can do what you want by yourself, not depends on other people, it’s different with American thought, they prefer to do something with other people together.

Chapter5        : American Relationship

1.      Sub Title          : Getting involved with people

Question          : How to Get involved with people?

Answer            : We can get involved with people in our surrounding. Examples, we have Class mates, we have office friends, we have business friends, we have shopping friends, we have church friends, and we can get involved with them.

2.      Sub Title          : Everyone is equal

Question          : Why is Everyone equal?

Answer            : In theory, everyone is equal, everyone is treated the same. But when confronted by such a bureaucracy, we feel as though we are “being treated like a number” we want everyone else to be treated equally, but we want to be treated specially, or “more equally”.

3.      Sub Title          : Confrontation

Question          : what is Confrontation?

Answer            : Confrontation is kind of compare or blame someone with the result that he or she to be hurt.

4.      Sub Title          : Fair play

Question          : What is Fair play?

Answer            : Fair play is to Play by the rule

5.      Sub Title          : American want to be liked

Question          : Why do American want to be liked?

Answer            : Because they have desire to be appreciate by other, the people who are most liked and have many friends, their lives are wonderful.

6.      Sub Title          : Introspection and self-criticism

Question          : What are Introspection and self-criticism?

Answer            : Introspection and self-criticism is criticism by other to improve ourselves so that be better. Self-criticism is expected and highly valued.

7.      Sub Title          : Roles

Question          : What are Roles?

Answer            : Roles are everything that we must follow unless will get punishments.

Chapter6        : What’s the world like, America?

1.      Sub Title          : Progress

Question          : What is Progress?

Answer            : progress, then, quite often means the achievement of physical comfort, good health, material possessions and a high standard of living.

2.      Sub Title          : What about people?

Question          : What about people?

Answer            : It’s very difficult for people of America to believe that people in other cultures make no distinction between the individual self and the group self. But though Americans perceive themselves as individuals, American individualism is something quite different.

3.      Sub Title          : Change

Question          : What is Changed?

Answer            : American culture has institutionalized change as has no other society. This willingness to change, to discard the past, colors the American view the world.

4.      Sub Title          : The denial of death

Question          : What is denial of death?

Answer            : The attempt to make it as harmless as possible and to keep it at arm’s length.

5.      Sub Title          : Material comfort

Question          : What is Material comfort?

Answer            : Material comfort is a characteristic of people who comfort of material, certainly, we need the material, for example, what would we do if there were no service organization to call when we need help?

6.      Sub Title          : Avoidance

Question          : What is Avoidance?

Answer            : Avoidance is closely couple with living in the “now” if we can live for now, we can avoid thinking about the future.

Chapter7        : American and Christianity in the beginning

1.      Sub Title          : The historical accident

Question          : What is The historical accident?

Answer            :

-          First, the early settlers were generally superior in intelligence, determination, and ambition.

-          Second, although some settlers before the middle of the eighteen century were French and Dutch, most were English. They spoke one language, which in itself, became a unifying force, and had one culture heritage.

-          Third, there American settlers were backed by an English empire that was rapidly expanding and had a great deal of a capital to risk.

-          Fourth, the abundance of land and natural resources in America, coupled with shortage of labor, quickly eliminated, the possibility of importing Europe’s feudal system with its aristocratic privileges.

-          Fifth, enough significant strides had been made in shipbuilding and in the art of navigation.

2.      Sub Title          : The new idea – the individual

Question          : What is The new idea – the individual?

Answer            : Salvation was achieved only through individual faith in Jesus Christ, the only mediator between God and men. 

3.      Sub Title          : Three view of church and state

Question          : What are the three views of church and state?

Answer            :

-          The idea of Luther and Calvin had spread at a time to free itself from the church of Rome.

-          In the midst of these struggles were English separatists state should be allowed to exist.

-          One large of churchmen was willing to recognize a state church but was persuaded that the ritual and prayer book of the church of England had no place in Christian life.

4.      Sub Title          : In the world but apart

Question          : why is it in the world apart?

Answer            : because their tendency on one hand was to escape the corruption of the world by isolating themselves from it. On the other hand, the temptation to be a part of the world threatened to contaminate holiness. The tension between these two position was and is crucial to Christianity.

5.      Sub Title          : Christian calling

Question          : How does Christian call?

Answer            : Introducing its self.

6.      Sub Title          : Unlimited wealth

Question          : What is unlimited wealth?

Answer            : Unlimited wealth is a willing of someone to be better.

7.       Sub Title         : Competition

Question          : What is the competition?

Answer            : Competition in European societies was socially unacceptable, but in the new world, individualism combined with unlimited wealth permitted competition.

8.      Sub Title          : Freedom

Question          : What is the freedom?

Answer            : this is about freedom to be an individual, freedom to govern own’s own affairs, freedom of religion.

Chapter8        : The making of a civil religion

1.      Sub Title          : The great awakening

Question          : What is the great awakening?

Answer            : just when it appeared that christianity in America was a lost cause, the holy spirit intervened in such spectacular ways that the resulting phenomenon became known as The great awakening.

2.      Sub Title          : The Enlightenment

Question          : What is The enlightenment?

Answer            : The Enlightenment was the logical result of the thinking of the English scientist Isaac Newton and the philosopher Jhon Locke.

3.      Sub Title          : The seed of revolution

Question          : What is The seed of revolution?

Answer            : The seed of revolution is the new education, new colleges and universities in the USA.

4.      Sub Title          : The Constitution

Question          :What is the Constitution?

Answer            : According to Benjamin Ffranklin, The Constitution is the existence of the Diety; that he made the world, and govern’d it by his Providence, that the most acceptable service of God was the doing of good to men; that our souls are immortal; and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter. 

5.      Sub Title          : Institutionalizing the kingdom

Question          : What is the Institutionalizing the kingdom?

Answer            : Institutionalizing the kingdom is The doctrine of the kingdom of God, which have been built by the first Americans, had within it the seeds of its own destruction.

6.      Sub Title          : Yankee ingenuity and interchangeable parts

Question          : What are the Yankee ingenuity and interchangeable parts?

Answer            : Yankee ingenuity is invented new ways of obtaining more resources in less time, thereby accumulating wealth. 

Chapter9        : A new world view

1.      Sub Title          : The result of pluralism

Question          : What is The result of pluralism?

Answer            : changing the government. People be treated “equally” and be seen as having equal value.

2.      Sub Title          : Cultural isolation

Question          : What is the Cultural isolation?

Answer            : Culture isolation is a manner to make their culture apart or separated from other cultures in the world. This also led to an ignorance of other cultures and other countries, which Americans viewed as “strange”.

3.      Sub Title          : Rewriting history

Question          : What is the Rewriting history?

Answer            : Rewriting history is kind of remembering our experiences in the past to face and continue our lives in the present and future.

4.      Sub Title          : The technological fix

Question          : What is The technological fix?

Answer            : The technological fix is a way or a manner to make something real, and how to make something effectively we use the technology.

5.      Sub Title          : Cause and effect

Question          : What are Cause and effect?

Answer            : Cause is the thing makes something occurs, and the effect is the result.

6.      Sub Title          : The last one hundred years

Question          : What happened in the last one hundred years?

Answer            : The religion no longer played a significant role in the shaping of American culture.

7.      Sub Title          : But what of the present?

Question          : But what of the present?

Answer            : Now is better than the past

Chapter10      : How do we respond?

1.      Sub Title          : Three levels of commitment

Question          : What are Three levels of commitment?

Answer            : the first; commitment to God in Christ, the second; to our spouse and we have when we come to Christ , a commitment to the church.

2.      Sub Title          : Commitment to self

Question          : What is Commitment to self?

Answer            : This is a backward from what we are learning from our culture, which is telling us that our first commitment must be to ourselves. God’s word comes at it from different viewpoint, but The best is we have to put the first commitment on to God.

3.      Sub Title          : To what local church am I committed?

Question          : To what local church am I committed?

Answer            : So that there will be fellowships in the local area.

4.      Sub Title          : Turn it upside down

Question          : Why is it turned upside down?

Answer            : Christian commitment starts as an individual thing. One becomes committed to Christ. But that commitment is transformed to a commitment to the living body of Christ, a commitment to brothers and sisters who are fellow their to the kingdom.

Chapter11      : Commitment to the community

1.      Sub Title          : Where do we begin?

Question          : Where do we begin?

Answer            : Unique. this may seem like a strange place to begin, Local, Intimate, Fitted together, Gifted, Spirit-market, A family affair,

2.      Sub Title          : The characteristics of Christians

Question          : What are The characteristics of Christians?

Answer            : The characteristics of Christians are:

-          Christians are to love one other

-          Christians are to forgive one other

-          Christians are to teach one other

-          Christians are to be subject to one other

-          Christians are to be together

-          Christians are to be hospitable

-          Christians are to honor one other

-          Christians are to be concerned for one other

-          Christians are to confess to one other.

3.      Sub Title          : What does every local fellowship do?

Question          : What does every local fellowship do?

Answer            :  There are every local fellowship do :

-          A community builds itself up

-          A community is willing to die

-          A community seeks to identify gifts

-          A community gather together for fellowship

-          A community seeks to he taught

-          A community rightly divides the sacred and the profane

-          A community seeks to understand how it is being coerced by its culture and seeks to respond appropriately

-          A community permits differences in others

-          A community is on a journey not at its destination

-          A community is worldly

-          A community believes it is building God’s kingdom

-          A community set some apart.

4.      Sub Title          : What is community?

Question          : What is community?

Answer            : Community is a group of people who each knows about their relationships with others and they work together and organize together.

Chapter12      : The cost of community

1.      Sub Title          : Some obvious objections

Question          : what are the obvious objections?

Answer            : Some obvious objections are

-          It’s scary. I don’t want to lose my identity

-          I am not ready for the simple lifestyle

-          A group such as that can become legalistic. I don’t want to live by a bunch of dos and don’ts

-          I might lost my job to change it

-          I can’t be accountable to others

-          there are a lot of strange Christians around and I don’t get along with many of them

-          what happens if we grow? Won’t we lose the closeness we have worked so hard to achieve?

2.      Sub Title          : Some not-so-obvious objections

Question          : What are not-so-obvious objections?

Answer            : Some not-so-obvious objections are:

-          Inwardness

-          Outwardness

-          Communication

-          Organitation

-          Cost

Chapter13      : Where to begin

1.      Sub Title          : Begin with God’s word

Question          : What Begins with God’s word?

Answer            : Begin with God’s word is the first time we learn Christ, the first time we get information about the Christian religion.

2.      Sub Title          : Begin with a group

Question          : What Begin with a group?

Answer            : searching for people whom you feel comfortable with,

3.      Sub Title          : Explore gift together

Question          : What is Explore gift together?

Answer            : Explore gift together does not only mean giving something material, but beside that, the good gift is our support, example: the teacher gives learning to his student, the pastor give gift kind of support to his Christians.

Chapter14      : Living life

1.      Sub Title          : Learning to trust

Question          : How to Learn to trust?

Answer            : Trust comes when we discover we can tell another our joys and aches without that person condemning our feelings or trying to solve our problem. Trust comes when we accept others as they are. Trust comes when in an unguarded moment, we reveal part of ourselves that we have always kept secret and we find that the other person is just as concerned about keeping our confidence as we are.      

2.      Sub Title          : Learning what is important

Question          : why is the Learning what is Important?

Answer            : Because, without the knowledge, wealth is nothing.

3.      Subtitle            : Learning to know myself.

Question          : How to learn to know myself?

Answer            : If we want to know our own selves, we have to accept the evaluation from other toward our selves. That is an opportunity to know ourselves.

4.      Sub Title          : Learning to fight materialism

Question          : How to fight the materialism?

Answer            : The manner to fight the materialism is to learn to be not greedy of material. We have to give and share our wealth to other.

5.      Sub Title          : Learning to be accountable

Question          : How to be accountable?

Answer            : The ways of how to be accountable are to pray for one other, commitment to certain time and place. 

6.      Sub Title          : Learning to reach out

Question          : How to learn to reach out?

Answer            : The way to reach out is, to share Christian with other

7.      Sub Title          : Learning about marriage

Question          : How to Learn about marriage?

Answer            : The way of Learning about marriage is we are supposed to know each other before the marriage, so that we have a high commitment to enter into it.

8.      Sub Title          : Learning to accommodate families

Question          : How to  accommodate families?

Answer            : The way how to accommodate families is about how to raise children, to be a place where children feel at home, and make a good family.

9.      Sub Title          : Learning to move deeper into Christ  

Question          : Tow to move deeper into Christ?

Answer            : We have to hurt to see friends on disaster, we have to want to be found in Christ, we have to live in Christ. To be loved in Christ,

Chapter15      : What of tomorrow

1.      Sub Title          : How shall we live?

Question          : How shall we live?

Answer            : We must understand how to live, that is to be in Christ, and to consider that everything good is from God.

2.      Sub Title          : Secular society examines itself

Question          : What is secular society examine itself?

Answer            : Secular society examines itself means examination about economy, culture, and it is our culture and our economy are on opposite courses that while the culture calls for freedom, the economy calls for constraint.

3.      Sub Title          : Christians society examines itself

Question          : What is Christians society examine itself?

Answer            : Christians society examines itself means how Christians view themselves.

4.      Sub Title          : The call to commitment

Question          : What is The call to commitment

Answer            : There have always been both sedentary and “set apart” groups of Christians that were committed to one another.  

5.      Sub Title          : Commitment is community

Question          : Why is Commitment called community?

Answer            : Commitment is community, because To have a commitment in Christ, we have to join to a community, so we can share the Christ together and do worship together, as we know, God has called us to be in Christ, to be members of one another. So to be members of another is our commitment to hold Christ together.